Electronic Journal of Academic and Special Librarianship v.5 no.2-3 (Fall 2004) An Analysis of Entry-Level Librarian Ads Published in American Libraries, 1982-2002

Claudene Sproles

David Ratledge

Much discussion has taken place in the literature over the difficulty finding qualified candidates to fill vacancies within libraries. Emphasis has been placed on recruitment, internships, scholarships, and other partnerships by library science schools and libraries to attract new people to the profession. Even so, applicant pools are dwindling [Simmons-Welburn and McNeil,2004] and many institutions have been forced to rewrite job ads after initial postings to locate a qualified candidate. Factors hindering vacancy searches include:

• Graying of the profession-"Thousands of librarians will be retiring in the next ten years" [Simmons-Welburn and McNeil, 2004]
• Budget constraints/less positions [Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2004]
• Low pay in comparison to other professions [Congress on Professional Education, 1999]
• Less people entering the profession [Kaufman, 2002]

Since more and more experienced candidates are retiring, frequently recruitment must turn towards entry-level candidates. This paper takes a look at the minimum requirements acceptable to employers to hire a candidate with no professional experience.

A review of the literature reveals no specific focus on entry-level position requirements. There have been several studies analyzing position announcements for content. These studies focused on different specializations within the library field or a thorough examination of a particular year. Although some studies have included entry-level librarians, none examined these trends for changes in entry-level requirements over time.

This paper attempts to answer some of the questions about trends with entry-level positions, such as:

• What are the minimum requirements acceptable for an entry-level position?
• Have these requirements become more stringent or lax over time?
• What types of librarianship offer the most entry-level positions?
• Are there substantial differences in the requirements for reference, technical services, and systems librarian entry-level positions?
• Are there substantial differences in salaries between the three types of positions?
• What impact has technology had on the requirements for entry-level jobs?

This study should pinpoint what experience and knowledge are required of new graduates once they enter the profession and benefit institutions seeking to fill vacancies.

Literature Review

While there have been several studies over time analyzing job ads for various trends in the profession, the status of entry-level positions over time has not been addressed. A few studies have mentioned entry-level positions in their findings.

• Chaudhry and Komathi examined cataloging positions in the 1990s and found that the differences in requirements for tech services entry-level jobs and experienced librarian positions had lessened over time, indicating "requirements for entry-level jobs had increased." [Chaudhry and Komathi, 2001]. They also found that entry-level catalogers should already be highly trained in the field before beginning a professional position [Chaudhry and Komathi, 2001].
• Reser and Schuneman analyzed public service and technical services job ads in 1988. They developed a strict view of an entry-level job. The position either stated no work experience required or was necessary; or the ads labeled the position as entry-level. [Reser and Schuneman, 1992]. They found few entry-level jobs in their analysis, which they contributed to "institutions being reluctant to advertise nationally for entry-level positions." [Reser and Schuneman, 1992]. They also maintained that a cataloger requires more training than a public services position, therefore there are less entry-level technical services positions [Reser and Schuneman, 1992].
• Beile and Adams updated the Reser and Schuneman study in 1996. They found an overall decrease in the number of ads posted and used the same criteria for determining if a job was entry-level. They found that salary ranges for ads entry-level jobs and ads preferring experience only had slight salary differences. [Beile and Adams, 2000].
• In 1980, Creth and Harders mailed surveys to ARL personnel officers to determine the requirements for entry-level librarians. They found most positions required previous work experience in an academic library and that library schools should put stronger emphasis on gaining work experience outside library school.

Methodology

Entry-level librarian position vacancy announcements in academic libraries were analyzed over a twenty-year period at five-year intervals beginning in 1982 to determine how requirements for experience and knowledge have changed over time. It was decided job ad listings would paint a solid picture of what skills an entry-level applicant would need to secure a professional position.

The hypotheses are:

1. Over time, employers require more experience and knowledge that cannot always be gained from library school.
2. On the job experience before obtaining a professional degree is almost mandatory.
3. The number of entry-level jobs is decreasing.

1441 ads were analyzed in American Libraries between 1982 and 2002 and the data was entered into a spreadsheet. Duplicate ads were removed (Ads appearing in more than one issue). Also not included were temporary positions, foreign positions, part-time positions, and community college listings. Ads were divided into three categories: Systems, Reference, and Technical Services. The designation was based on majority of time spent in a particular area. An ad was designated as systems if a majority of the candidate’s time was devoted to the administration of an actual computer network. Technical services ads included primary duties such as cataloging, acquisitions, and circulation away from public services. Reference positions primarily dealt with public services, such as desk duties and bibliographic instruction. Collection development positions were decided on a case-by-case basis, depending on if the majority of time was spent in public or technical services.

Reser and Schuneman determined an ad was entry-level if it "(1) had no work experience mentioned in the advertisement; (2) had a statement specifying that no experience was necessary; or (3) were labeled "entry level" [Reser and Schuneman, 1992]. This study's definition of an "entry-level" position was less stringent that Reser and Schuneman's definition. For this study, an ad was determined to be entry-level if it met any of the following criteria:

1. Ad says "entry-level."
2. No mention of required professional experience.
3. No experience or duties impossible for entry-level librarians to gain (i.e. Supervising other professionals, administrative experience, substantial progressively responsible experience.)

The definition was expanded to determine the minimum qualifications a candidate would need to enter the field without professional experience. Reser and Schuneman's definition did not allow for paraprofessional work experience, but the revised definition takes pre-professional experience into consideration.

Advertisements meeting the criteria for entry-level were examined only for required qualifications (not preferred) to determine the minimum knowledge and experience acceptable for the position. Each of an ad's required qualifications was placed in one of the following categories: required education, required experience, required knowledge, and required personal attributes. The ads were then analyzed for trends and patterns. A chi-square test was performed on the technical services and reference tables to check for statistical significance. There was not enough data to perform chi-square for systems positions.

The Findings

Number of Positions

Figure A

The findings indicated that systems positions remained a small portion of the overall ads, peaking in 1997 with 8% of the positions. Overall percentages of technical services positions decreased from a high of 41% of total positions in 1982 to only 27% of the positions in 1997. After peaking with 37% in 1987, the percentage of entry-level technical services jobs declined to only 25% in 1997. Reference has always had the largest percentage of total ads, and has been on a steady increase with 64% of entry-level jobs being reference in 2002, although the total percentage of reference positions has remained relatively steady throughout the study. Additionally, California, New York, and Texas posted the most positions with 110, 102, and 82 respectively. Hawaii listed no positions and Delaware and Wyoming only had one position each.

Salary

When computing average salaries, systems librarians consistently averaged higher salaries than either reference or cataloging librarians. Systems librarians have also seen the biggest increase in average salaries. Reference librarians made less than technical services librarians except in 1997 when they averaged slightly higher [Figure B]. Overall, systems positions were paid an average of 7% higher than either reference or technical services.

Education

Minimum educational requirements for each position were examined and divided into nine categories:

• ALA accredited MLS
• MLS without mention of accreditation
• Degree equivalent to an MLS
• Degree other than an MLS
• Degree in addition to an MLS
• Prefer an MLS
• Work experience in lieu of a degree
• No education requirement listed
• Coursework in place of a degree.

Systems librarian positions were the least likely to require an ALA-MLS with only 75% of positions requiring one. A non-accredited MLS was more accepted in the past, with no systems ads allowing one in either 1997 or 2002. Not much interest has been shown in equivalent degrees with only two ads listing them as acceptable. A degree other than the MLS has become more accepted with 31% of the positions accepting one in 1997 and 15% in 2002. Only two ads asked for a degree in addition to the MLS and no ads listed the MLS as preferred. Experience in lieu of a degree was listed in four ads and five ads did not mention an education requirement. By 2002, systems positions began to place a larger emphasis on coursework with 15% of positions requiring it [Figure C].

Figure C
Systems - Education

	1982	%	1987	%	1992	%	1997	%	2002	%
ALA-MLS	1	50	20	83	14	82	20	77	11	82
MLS	1	50	2	8	2	12	0	0	0	0
Equivalent Degree	0	0	2	8	0	0	0	0	0	0
Degree other than MLS	0	0	2	8	0	0	8	31	2	15
Degree in addition to MLS	0	0	1	4	0	0	0	0	1	8
MLS Preferred	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Experience in lieu of degree	0	0	2	8	0	0	1	4	1	8
Not Listed	0	0	2	8	1	6	2	8	0	0
Coursework	0	0	1	5	1	6	1	4	2	15

The demand for an ALA-MLS peaked in 1997 for technical services positions with 97% of positions requiring one. Acceptance of a non-accredited MLS has been on a steady decline, going from 13% in 1982 to 3% in 1997. The acceptance of equivalent degrees also was at its height in 1997 with 10%. Degrees other than the MLS have never been in high demand, averaging about 5% and then peaking in 1992 with 11%. Only 2 positions in 1992 preferred, but did not require an MLS, and four positions total allowed experience in place of a degree. Only eleven ads did not mention an education requirement. Coursework has been consistent over time averaging about 13%. A chi-square analysis showed the results as significant [Figure D].

Figure D
Technical Services - Education

	1982	%	1987	%	1992	%	1997	%	2002	%
ALA-MLS	77	87	161	90	76	92	70	97	57	93
MLS	12	13	9	5	4	5	2	3	3	5
Equivalent Degree	3	3	7	4	1	1	7	10	3	5
Degree other than MLS	1	1	1	1	2	2	1	1	2	3
Degree in addition to MLS	4	4	6	3	9	11	3	4	1	1
MLS Preferred	2	2	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Experience in lieu of degree	2	2	0	0	1	1	0	0	1	1
Not Listed	0	0	7	4	3	4	0	0	1	1
Coursework	11	12	21	12	13	16	8	11	8	13

x² = 48.38691899
df = 32
p = 0.031680749

Reference positions requiring an ALA-MLS were strongest in 1992 and 1997, with 96%. Acceptance of a non ALA-MLS has been steadily declining from 11% in 1982 to 3% in 1997. Allowing an equivalent degree saw its peak in 2002, with 14% of the positions listing it. A degree other than the MLS was the strongest in 1987 and 2002 with 5%. There was a larger demand for an additional degree in 1992 with 15%, but has been on a decline since with only 9% in 2002. 2002 was also the first time that many positions said an MLS was only preferred, with 9%. Experience in lieu of a degree has been on the decline since 1982 with only one position allowing it in 2002. Fourteen positions total did not list an education requirement. Coursework requirements have taken a dive since 1992 when 23% of ads listed a requirement. Again, the chi-square test found the results statistically significant [Figure E].

Figure E
Reference - Education

	1982	%	1987	%	1992	%	1997	%	2002	%
ALA-MLS	113	81	223	89	160	96	178	96	124	93
MLS	16	11	19	8	6	4	6	3	7	5
Equivalent Degree	4	3	15	6	1	1	13	7	19	14
Degree other than MLS	1	1	12	5	0	0	5	3	7	5
Degree in addition to MLS	17	12	32	13	25	15	23	12	9	9
MLS Preferred	2	1	0	0	0	0	0	0	9	9
Experience in lieu of degree	11	8	4	2	10	6	5	3	1	1
Not Listed	3	2	6	2	1	1	3	2	1	1
Coursework	27	19	58	23	31	19	34	18	18	13

x² = 120.3289795
df = 32
p = 3.68154E-12

Overall, 1997 saw a peak in the requirement of an ALA-MLS, while requiring a degree in addition to the MLS was at its height in 1992. Technical services were the most likely to require an ALA-MLS with 92% of the positions listing it as mandatory. Systems librarian positions were the least likely to require an MLS with only 75% of positions requiring it. Collectively, acceptance of a non-accredited MLS has been on the decline, while acceptance of a degree other than an MLS has been on the rise. Systems librarian positions were the least likely to require an MLS and showed a trend towards accepting work experience instead of a degree, unlike the other two types of positions. Additionally, by 2002 systems positions began to place a larger emphasis on coursework while other positions saw a trend of placing less emphasis on coursework [Figure F].

Figure F

Required Experience

The next variable examined was the required experience for each position. Required experience was divided into seven sections:

• Technical Services experience
• Collection Development experience
• Computer/automation experience
• Reference experience
• Bibliographic Instruction experience
• Supervisory experience
• Other work experience, such as general experience in a library or experience working with the public

Systems positions showed the requirement for technical services experience peaked in 1997, with 12% of the positions requiring it, while no positions required it in 2002 or 1982. Collection development experience was only seen in 2002, making it the least required of the experiences. A big increase in the demand for computer experience occurred going from 58% in 1987 to 85% in 2002. Reference experience has never been in high demand, fluctuating between no ads requiring it or one ad requiring it. Supervisory experience peaked in 1992 with two jobs requiring it, to only one ad listing it in both 1997 and 2002. Other work experience has seen a steady increase, going from 8% of the jobs in 1987 to 38% in 2002. There was not enough data to calculate chi-square for systems positions [Figure G].

Figure G
Systems - Experience

	1982	%	1987	%	1992	%	1997	%	2002	%
Technical Services Experience	0	0	2	8	0	0	3	12	0	0
Collection Development Experience	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	2	15
Computer/Automation Experience	0	0	14	58	9	53	16	62	11	85
Reference Experience	0	0	1	5	1	6	0	0	1	8
Bibliographic Instruction Experience	0	0	0	0	2	12	0	0	1	8
Supervisory Experience	0	0	0	0	2	12	1	4	1	8
Other Work Experience	0	0	2	8	2	12	4	15	5	38

Technical Services positions saw an upward trend towards actual work experience in the technical services field. Percentages range from a low of 34% in 1987 to a high of 49% in 1997. Collection development experience has had little demand, with a peak of 6% of the positions requiring it in 1987. Additionally, there has been growing demand for computer experience, with over 30% of ads requiring it in 1997 and 2002, up from 10% in 1987. The requirement for additional reference experience peaked in 1992, with 10% of jobs listing it, but has never been in high demand. There has been little emphasis on Bibliographic Instruction experience, with only 2 ads total listing it as a requirement. Supervisory experience is on the rise again after falling to a low of 4% in 1992 to a high of 16% in 2002. The requirement for additional work experience was highest in 1997 with 15% of positions listing it, although it has not been a huge increase from other years. The chi-square test showed a statistical significance in the overall data [Figure H].

Figure H
Technical Services - Experience

	1982	%	1987	%	1992	%	1997	%	2002	%
Technical Services Experience	39	44	60	34	32	39	35	49	29	48
Collection Development Experience	0	0	10	6	2	2	0	0	0	0
Computer/Automation Experience	19	21	19	10	19	23	23	32	18	30
Reference Experience	2	2	1	1	8	10	5	7	2	4
Bibliographic Instruction Experience	0	0	0	0	1	1	1	1	0	0
Supervisory Experience	9	10	12	7	3	4	6	8	10	16
Other Work Experience	6	7	19	11	7	8	11	15	8	13

x² = 48.09258665
df = 24
p = 0.002458336

Reference placed little emphasis on technical services experience, with an average of 2% of positions requiring it. Collection development experience peaked in 1997 with 7% of positions requiring it. Computer/automation experience rose yearly until 1997 with 31% of positions listing it. Reference experience remained around 17% except for 1997 when 31% of positions required it. Bibliographic instruction experience saw a huge rise from 3% in 1982 to 17% in 1997 and 10% in 2002. Supervisory experience has always been low with an average of 3% of the positions listing it as a requirement. Finally, other work experience on average has been required in 17% of the jobs, reaching a peak in 1997 with 22% of the jobs. Overall data analysis shows the differences as statistically significant [Figure I].

Figure I
Reference - Experience

	1982	%	1987	%	1992	%	1997	%	2002	%
Technical Services Experience	2	1	5	2	3	2	5	3	0	0
Collection Development Experience	2	1	4	2	0	0	13	7	5	4
Computer/Automation Experience	12	9	3	1	19	11	57	31	35	26
Reference Experience	25	18	44	18	24	14	58	31	23	17
Bibliographic Instruction Experience	3	2	10	4	5	3	32	17	14	10
Supervisory Experience	4	3	10	4	2	1	7	4	5	4
Other Work Experience	24	17	29	12	30	18	41	22	23	17

x² = 61.84531466
df = 24
p = 3.49023E-05

Overall, systems librarian positions have been the most likely to require actual experience in that field with 52% of positions requiring actual computer experience. Technical services also had a large number of jobs requiring experience in the technical services field with 43% of the job ads listing it as mandatory. There has been little interest in experience in other sections of the library, such as reference librarians with technical services experience. Collection development experience is in low demand for all positions. Bibliographic instruction experience has been highest for reference librarians with 7% of positions requiring it, although systems positions have seen small increases also. Supervisory experience is most often required for technical services with 9% of positions listing it as required, while reference had the least. Other experience has remained steady for all the positions averaging about 14% [Figure J].

Figure J

Knowledge/Skills

Required knowledge or skills was categorized similar to the experience categories:

• Foreign language knowledge
• Collection Development knowledge
• Technical Services knowledge
• Reference knowledge
• Computer/automation knowledge
• Bibliographic Instruction knowledge

No systems position required foreign language or collection development knowledge. Systems ads saw a move away from requiring technical services knowledge with only 6% in 1992, but increased to 19% in 1997 and 15% in 2002. Reference knowledge was only asked for in four ads while computer/automation has always been high, peaking at 85% in 1997. Bibliographic instruction skill has been inconsistent only appearing in 1987 with 21% and 1997 with 23% [Figure K].

Figure K
Systems - Knowledge

	1982	%	1987	%	1992	%	1997	%	2002	%
Foreign Language Knowledge	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Collection Development Knowledge	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0	0
Technical Services Knowledge	1	50	8	33	1	6	5	19	2	15
Reference Knowledge/Skill	0	0	1	5	1	6	0	0	2	15
Computer/Automation Knowledge/Skill	1	50	14	58	7	41	22	85	7	54
Bibliographic Instruction Skill	0	0	5	21	0	0	6	23	0	0

Technical services have seen a decrease in the demand for a foreign language going from 36% in 1982 to 11% in 2002. Collection development knowledge peaked in 1987 with 12% and fell to 0 in 1997. Demand for technical services knowledge has steadily risen, starting with 40% in 1982 to 64% in 2002. Reference knowledge has not been in high demand with only 6% of positions listing it as required. Computer/Automation knowledge has also seen a marked increased from 9% in 1982 to 42% in 1997. Bibliographic instruction skills have always been low, but peaked in 2002 with 5%. Again, the analysis showed a statistical significance [Figure L].

Figure L
Technical Services - Knowledge

	1982	%	1987	%	1992	%	1997	%	2002	%
Foreign Language Knowledge	32	36	55	31	24	29	21	29	7	11
Collection Development Knowledge	0	0	12	7	2	2	0	0	1	2
Technical Services Knowledge	36	40	86	48	41	49	42	58	39	64
Reference Knowledge/Skill	1	1	5	3	8	10	6	8	5	8
Computer/Automation Knowledge/Skill	8	9	35	20	20	24	30	42	25	41
Bibliographic Instruction Skill	4	4	1	1	0	0	2	3	3	5

x² = 61.69829291
df = 20
p = 3.87583E-06

Reference positions requirement for foreign language peaked in 1992 with 9% but fell to 5% by 2002. Collection development knowledge has remained low, hovering around 6%. Technical services knowledge is also low, with about 3% of positions requiring it. Reference skill requirement saw its peak in 2002 with 46% of positions listing it as mandatory. Computer skills plateaued in 1997 with 46% listing it. Bibliographic instruction skills have had huge increases going from 8% in 1982 to 39% in 2002. The results were found to be statistically significant [Figure M].

Figure M
Reference - Knowledge

	1982	%	1987	%	1992	%	1997	%	2002	%
Foreign Language Knowledge	12	9	20	8	15	9	14	8	6	5
Collection Development Knowledge	0	0	10	4	3	2	4	2	7	5
Technical Services Knowledge	3	2	7	3	4	2	11	6	3	2
Reference Knowledge/Skill	22	16	35	14	42	25	67	36	61	46
Computer/Automation Knowledge/Skill	11	8	39	16	49	30	86	46	52	39
Bibliographic Instruction Skill	13	9	18	7	33	20	40	22	52	39

x² = 57.796479
df = 20
p = 1.55297E-05

Overall, foreign language requirements have been on the decline since 1982, with technical services most likely to require them and systems positions the least likely. Collection development knowledge has remained low, with reference positions most likely to ask for it. Technical Services and reference have all sharply increased for their respective disciplines. Computer/automation knowledge rose dramatically and peaked in 1997 as a requirement. Bibliographic instruction skill remains low, but reference has seen the largest increase for it as a requirement [Figure N].

Figure N

Personal Abilities

Required personal abilities were divided as follows:

• Ability to work with others/diversity awareness
• Public service commitment
• Supervision/leadership ability
• Interpersonal skills, such as oral and written communication skills
• Ability to participate in scholarship and professional development

Systems librarian positions saw the ability to work with others/diversity awareness at its highest in 2002 with 38%. Public service commitment has remained low with about 5% of positions requiring it. Supervision/leadership ability has declined from 50% in 1982 to 15% in 2002. Interpersonal skills have been consistently high averaging about 82%. The ability to participate in scholarship and professional development has risen from zero in 1982 and 1987 to 15% in 1997 and 2002 [Figure O].

Figure O
Systems - Personal Abilities

	1982	%	1987	%	1992	%	1997	%	2002	%
Diversity Awareness/ Working with others	0	0	6	25	1	6	6	23	5	38
Public Service Commitment	0	0	1	5	2	12	5	19	1	8
Supervision/ Leadership	1	50	2	8	2	12	5	19	2	15
Interpersonal Skills	2	100	15	63	9	53	22	85	10	77
Scholarship/ Professional Development	0	0	0	0	1	6	4	15	2	15

Ability to work with others/diversity awareness saw a huge jump for technical services positions from 8% in 1992 to 62% in 2002. Public service commitment has also risen from 2% in 1982 to 23% in 2002. Supervision/leadership ability has remained steady, averaging about 13%. Interpersonal skills have sharply risen from 17% in 1982 to 79% in 2002. Ability to participate in scholarship and professional development has also seen an increase from none in 1982 to 23% in 2002. Interestingly, this was the only chart that the chi-square test did not find a statistical significance [Figure P].

Figure P
Technical Services - Personal Abilities

	1982	%	1987	%	1992	%	1997	%	2002	%
Diversity Awareness/ Working with Others	7	8	44	25	19	23	30	42	38	62
Public Service Commitment	2	2	15	8	2	2	10	14	14	23
Supervision/ Leadership	9	10	24	13	8	10	12	17	9	15
Interpersonal Skills	15	17	82	46	43	52	49	68	48	79
Scholarship/ Professional Development	0	0